Indian Histroy BitBank (Telugu)
AP History

Languages & Literature in ANDHRA PRADESH Languages

The main languages spoken in Andhra Pradesh are Telugu, Urdu, Hindi, Banjara, and English followed by Tamil, Kannada, Marathi and Oriya. Telugu is the principal and official language of the State. It was also referred to as `Tenugu' in the past. `Andhra' is the name given to it since the medieval times. Some argued that `Telugu' was a corruption of `Trilinga' (Sanskrit meaning three `lingas'). A general description of the land of the Telugus was made in the medieval times as `the land marked by three lingas of the three famous shrines of Draksharamam (East Godavari district), Kaleswaram (Karimnagar district) and Srisailam (Kurnool district). Telugu is the most widely spoken language of the Dravidian family which consists of 24 languages spanning the entire South-Asia, from Baluchistan to Sri Lanka. In terms of population, Telugu ranks second to Hindi among the Indian languages. According to the 1981* Census, Telugu is spoken by over 45 million in Andhra Pradesh. It has also spread to the other parts of the globe, i.e., Burma, Indo-China, South-Africa and the U.S.A. Being a mellifluous language, it is called, by its admirers as the `Italian of the East'. Its vocabulary is very much influenced by Sanskrit. In the course of time, some Sanskrit expressions used in Telugu got so naturalised that people regarded them as pure Telugu words. Some Kannada and Tamil words were also taken into Telugu but they did not gain much currency. With the advent of the Muslim rule, several Persian and Arabic words entered into the Telugu language. But they were confined to the spoken language and to the language of the judiciary and the executive. The influence of Persian and Arabic is discernible to a considerable extent in the languages spoken in Telangana due to its long association with the Muslim rule. There is also a great element of English words in the vocabulary of Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema because these regions were directly under the British rule for nearly a century and a half. The evolution of Telugu can be traced through centuries in terms of its form as well as its function. Although culturally Telugu is close to its southern neighbours -- Tamil and Kannada -- genetically, it is closer to its northern neighbours -- Gondi, Konda, Kui, Kuvi, Pengo and Manda. There is evidence to show that these languages were freely borrowed from Telugu even from the prehistoric period whereas borrowing between Telugu and Tamil and Kannada has been mostly during the historic period, i.e., post-5th century B.C. *Language-wise population figures of 1991 Census have not yet been released by the Census Department.  It is possible to identify broadly four stages in the history of the Telugu language. (1) B.C. 200 -- A.D. 500 (2) A.D. 500--A.D.1100 (3) A.D. 1100--A.D.1400 and (4) A.D. 1400--A.D.1900. During the first phase, we only come across names of places and personal names of Telugu in Prakrit and Sanskrit inscriptions found in the Telugu country. Telugu was exposed to the influence of Prakrit as early as the 3rd century B.C. From this we know that the language of the people was Telugu, although the language of the rulers was different. The first complete Telugu inscription belongs to the Renati Cholas, found in Erragudipadu, Kamalapuram taluk of Cuddapah district and assigned to about A.D. 575. Telugu was exposed to the influence of Sanskrit about this period. It appears that literature also existed in Telugu about the same time, because we find literary style in the inscriptions some three centuries even before Nannaya's (A.D. 1022) Mahabharatam. During the time of Nannaya, the popular language had considerably diverged from the literary language.  In the period A.D. 500--1100, the literary languages confined to the poetic works, flourished in the courts of kings and among scholars. Phonetic changes, which occurred in the popular language, are reflected in the literary language, although the two streams remained apart in grammar and vocabulary. During A.D. 1100--1400 the literary language got stylized and rigid, closing itself from the influence of contemporary spoken language. Ketana (13th century AD), a disciple of Tikkana prohibited the use of spoken words in the poetic works and quoted some spoken forms. During the period A.D. 1400--1900, many changes culminating in today's form of Telugu took place.  The prose language of the 19th century, as can be seen from the `Kaifiyats', shows the educated speech as base with occasional influence of literary language. We also notice the influence of Urdu language on Telugu before the spread of English education.  From the foregoing overview of the history of the Telugu language, one can see that what we now use as modern standard Telugu, had its beginnings in the spoken variety, right from the 10th century A.D. The language was progressively enriched by contact with Sanskrit, Prakrit, Urdu and English from early times.  Until the advent of the printing press and the school system of education, Telugu was broadly used in four areas: (1) inscriptions, (2) poetry, (3) folk literature, (4) common speech (social and perhaps official). The language of the inscriptions had always been based on the contemporary speech of the educated with an occasional admixture of literary and rustic expressions. Folk literature, which was in the form of songs, drew mainly on the speech of the common people among whom it circulated, basically rural in its character. Both in its appeal and form, the poetic language was confined to royal courts and the elite. Care was taken to keep it insulated from the speech of even the scholars and poets, who used it in other areas of communication. Because of this restriction on the medium, prose never emerged as a form of classical literature in Telugu. Even the sparse scientific writing on prosody, arithmetic, medicine and grammar was cast either in Telugu verse or in Sanskrit slokas. The emergence of popular literary forms like the satakas devotional songs and the yaksha gana necessitated extensive reliance on contemporary spoken language in their appeal and expressiveness. Early commentaries, historical accounts (like Rayavachakam), and the few prose works, which were written for instructional purposes in the first half of the 19th century, were all written in educated speech which was distinct from the language of the literary dialect. In 1853, Chinnayasuri, a Telugu pundit in the Presidency College, first experimented with a prose variety based on the classical poetic language in his book "Niti Chandrika". In 1855, he published Bala Vyakaranamu, an excellent grammar of the poetic language, but it was intended for school study and as a guide to `Correct Writing'. These works had, to some extent, given support to traditional pundits, who upheld the Kavya bhasha as primary and the spoken language as its degenerate form. The influence of Chinnayasuri temporarily arrested the growth of creative prose by famous writers until Gurazada Appa Rao appeared on the scene and produced his social play Kanyasulkam in 1897 in a near modern language. The controversy that raged between the two schools, classical and modern subsided in 1919 with a victory for the classic writers to perpetuate the use of the so-called granthikam (or the poetic dialect) as the language of the text-book language and the medium of examination. However, teaching has all along been done only in the spoken variety of the teacher.  For about 90 years (1850--1940), Telugu prose had a stunted growth, although scholars like Kandukuri Viresalingam and Panuganti Lakshminarasimha Rao used a `liberalized poetic variety' in their writings, which was neither fully classical nor fully modern.  Since the nineteen forties, Telugu prose style wriggled out of the clutches of the traditional pundits. The emergence of mass media of communication, like the radio, T.V., cinema, language, newspapers and new forms of writing, under the impact of nationalist movement reinforced the importance of the spoken word and various literary forms blossomed in modern language. By and large, the prosperous Krishna -- Godavari delta became the breeding ground of many writers and scholars, and their spoken variety assumed several prose forms and slowly spread to other areas assimilating other dialects in its course. The language now used in all modern forms of literature and newspapers has a great degree of uniformity and acceptability, which lends it the status of a standard language. Now the nationalised text-books and those prescribed for Telugu language degree by universities are the only `sanctuaries' of the poetic dialect.  The seminar sponsored by the State Government in 1964 at Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, resolved that only the modern language should be used for all subject (non-1st language) books written in Telugu and all 2nd language books. This resolution has been implemented in the case of subject text-books produced by the Telugu Akademi. Now all the universities in the State are allowing the use of modern Telugu as the examination medium and modern literature has been prescribed for study at the University level. In 1966, Telugu became the official language of the State and in 1974, correspondence in Telugu was made at the taluk level. This was gradually extended to Heads of Departments and Secretariat levels. In 1969, Telugu as the medium of instruction was introduced on a large scale in higher education. Literature Telugu literature is generally divided into six periods, viz., (1) the pre-Nannaya period (up to A.D. 1020), (2) the Age of the Puranas (1020--1400), (3) the Age of Srinatha (1400--1510), (4) the Age of the Prabandhas (1510--1600), (5) the Southern period (1600--1820), and (6) the Modern Period (after 1820).  In the earliest period there were only inscriptions from A.D. 575 onwards. Nannaya's (1022--1063) translation of the Sanskrit Mahabharata into Telugu is the piece of Telugu literature as yet discovered. The diction is so masterly that historians think that there must have been earlier works in Telugu. After the death of Nannaya, there was a kind of social and religious revolution in the Telugu country.  Virasaivism propagated bhakti towards Siva as the only means of attaining salvation. Tikkana (13th century) and Yerrana (14th century) continued the translation of the Mahabharata started by Nannaya. Yerrana was also a devotee of Siva. Quite a few poets continued writing in Telugu and we come to the age of Srinatha.  During this period, some Telugu poets translated Sanskrit poems and dramas, while others attempted original narrative poems. The popular Telugu literary form called the Prabandha, was evolved during this period. Srinatha (1365--1441) was the foremost poet, who popularised this style of composition (a story in verse having a tight metrical scheme). Srinatha's, Sringara Naishadham is particularly well-known. We may also refer to the Ramayana poets in this context. The earliest Ramayana in Telugu is generally known as the Ranganatha Ramayana, though authorised by the chief Gona Buddha Reddi. Then there were the great religious poets like Potana (1450--1510), Jakkana (second half of the 14th century) and Gaurana (first half of the 15th century). The golden period of Telugu literature was the 16th and 17th centuries A.D., Krishnadevaraya's Amuktamalayada is regarded as a Mahakavya. Peddana's Manucharitra is another outstanding Mahakavya. Telugu literature flourished in the south in the Samsthanas like Madurai, Tanjavur etc., and that is why the age itself was called the `Southern Period'. We find a comparatively larger number of poets among the rulers, women and non-Brahmins who popularised the desi metres. With the conquest of the Deccan by the Mughals in A.D.1687, there ensued a period of decadence (1750--1850) in literature. Then emerged a period of transition (1850--1910), following a long period of Renaissance. The Europeans like C.P.Brown played an important role in the development of Telugu language and literature. In common with the rest of India, Telugu literature of this period was increasingly influenced by the European literary forms like the novel, short story, prose, drama, belles-litters, etc. The father of modern Telugu literature is Kandukuri Viresalingam Pantulu (1848--1919), who wrote a novel, Rajasekhara Charitamu, inspired by the Vicar of Wakefield. He was the first person in modern times to use literature to eradicate social evils. He was followed by Rayaprolu Subba Rao, Gurazada Appa Rao, Viswanatha Satyanarayana, Katuri Venkateswara Rao, Jashuva, Devulapalli Venkata Krishna Sastry, Sri Sri, Puttaparty Narayana Charyulu and others in the sphere of poetry. Viswanatha Satyanarayana had won the coveted Jnanapith Award. ``Kanyasulkam'' (Bride-Money), the first social play in Telugu by Gurazada Appa Rao was a thumping success. We also find the progressive movement, free verse movement and Digambara style finding expression in Telugu verse. The well-known modern Telugu novelists were Unnava Lakshminarayana (of Malapalli fame), Viswanatha Satyanarayana (Veyi Padagalu), Kutumba Rao and Buchchi Babu. Telugu is specially known for its daring experiments in the field of poetry and drama. Urdu, another important language of the State and spoken by the Muslims is Indian in origin. Though many words in it found their way from the Arabic and Persian, it has always been true to the idiom of the western Hindi dialect. It was ``the language of the Exalted Court'' at Delhi in the Mughal period. It acquired the shortened name `Urdu' and became the handmaid of the Persian culture in India. The 1981 census recorded 41,69,179 Urdu-speaking persons in the State comprising 21,21,859 males and 20,47,320 females. Hyderabad City, the State's Capital accounted for 35 per cent of the Urdu-speaking people in Hyderabad district, forming over 8 per cent of the population, and came next to Telugu. Guntur, Anantapur and Cuddapah districts also accounted for a sizeable number of Urdu-speaking people. In the Telangana region, the overall proportion of Urdu-speaking people is very high. Hindi speaking people, numbering 13,83,792, (7,10,313 males and 6,73,479 females) and forming about three per cent of the population, held the third place. None of the remaining languages was spoken by even 2 per cent of the population. Thus Tamil, Kannada and Marathi account for still smaller proportions. These individual languages, however, account for a fairly substantial proportion of speakers in some districts. There were 6,45,463 Tamil; 4,84,330 Kannada, 4,31,352 Marathi and 2,36,420 Oriya speaking people in the State. People speaking Tamil are found concentrated in Chittoor district, which adjoins Tamil Nadu. They are also found to some extent in Nellore and Hyderabad districts. Kannada and Marathi speakers can be seen in districts like Anantapur and Kurnool, and Adilabad and Nizamabad respectively which have close proximity to the adjoining Kannada and Marathi areas of Karnataka and Maharashtra states. Of the numerous other languages spoken in the State, the 1981 Census recorded 44,489 persons speaking Malayalam; 36,180 speaking Gujarati, 18,544 speaking Bengali, Punjabi -16,833, Sindhi - 9,521, Assami -248 and Kashmiri -121. Of the foreign languages spoken in the State, 414 speak Arabic and three, Tibetan. The principal tribal languages spoken in the State are Banjara/Sugali/Lambadi ( 45,00,000) , Koya (1,58,097), Gondi (1,12,303), Savara (47,609), Jatapu (23,366), Kolami (13,395), Khondi/Kondh (11,890), Gadaba (11,291) and Donda (9,951). Source: Revenue Department (Gazetteers)

Andhra Pradesh  Architecture

Architecture

Architecture in Andhra Pradesh ranges from prehistoric cairns to Buddhist Setups; Hindu and Jain temples of great importance to imposing churches, secular monuments such as the Charming of Hyderabad to some of the most beautiful mosques and Islamic tombs of India. Cities of Andhra Pradesh have interesting examples of European architecture as well as domestic vernacular architecture.

Warangal, Penuconda, Bimlipatnam and Chandragiri are among the important historical towns and cities of the state besides old Hyderabad and the world famous Golconda Fort. Prehistoric Architecture (later half of third millennium B.C.)  Buddhist Monuments and Sites.  Hindu Temples  Rock Cut Temples  Structural Temples: Early Chalukyan  Kakatiya Temples  Hybrid Styles: Simhachalam  Reddi Kings of Kondavid  Architecture of the Vijayanagara Kings  Qutb Shahi Style (mainly in and around Hyderabad city)  Neo Qutb Shahi (Hyderabad city)  Palaces  Palaces of the Nizam: Asaf Jahi Style (mainly in and around Hyderabad city)  The Paigah Palaces (Hyderabad city)  Palaces of Other Nobles in Hyderabad  Other Palaces of Hyderabad  European Architecture in Andhra Pradesh  Architecture of Hyderabad during the CIB period  Modern Architecture in Andhra Pradesh

Prehistoric Architecture (later half of third millennium B.C.)

__________________________________________________________________________
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]-->
<!--[endif]-->

In the later half of third millennium B.C., people in the central and lower Deccan (which constitute most of modern Andhra Pradesh) lived on or around granite hills. They had round or rectangular houses, 2.4 to 6 meters wide. Walls were generally made of a mixture of sticks, earth and clay; erected around 7.5 cm thick wooden posts and a bamboo screen. The roof was either conical or flat, made of bamboo strips and reeds and covered with dry leaves and clay. Of pre historic architecture only stone burials survive in different parts of the state.

Ancient Andhra people were mentioned in the text of Aitreya Brahmana as early as in the 8^th century BC. After Emperor Asoka, Simuka founded the independent Satavahana dynasty. The Satavahanas were followed by the Ikshwakus, kutus, Vrahatpalayanas and Vakatakas.

Buddhist Monuments and Sites __________________________________________________________________________

Outside Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the largest number of Buddhist sites in India are located in Andhra Pradesh. Buddhism flourished in this region under the patronage of Mauryan, Satavahana and Ikshvaku kings. In the second century AD, Acharya Nagarjuna founded the Madhyamika School of Buddhist philosophy (the ‘Middle Path’) in the valley now mostly submerged under the waters of Nagarjunasagar Dam situated about 150 Km south of Hyderabad. Other Buddhist sites are concentrated in Visakhapatnam-Vijayawada belt. Amaravati Amaravati stupa (a mound forming a Buddhist sacred monument), 50 Km south of Vijayawada town, was built in the 3rd – 2nd centuries B.C. Subsequent additions were made in the 1st-4th centuries AD under both Satavahana and Ikshvaku kings. The site lies close to the ancient Satavahana capital, Dhanyakataka. The stupa, was the largest in the eastern Deccan, (36.5 m across and encircled by a 4.2 m path). This was a brick structure covered with marble casing slabs. Most of the broken carved capping pieces, railings and posts are removed and displayed in the Government museum in Chennai. Only a large earthen mound survives of the original stupa. Some of the pieces can also be seen in the site museum at Amaravati, in addition to a miniature outdoor model of the original stupa. Guntupalle Guntupalle is about 60 km east of Vijayawada. Situated amidst a picturesque hill and ravine, Guntapalle has a rock cut cave, a circular Chaitya Hall (meeting hall), several standing images of Buddha and more than 30 votive stupas and Viharas (monasteries). Both rock cut and structural, architecture at Guntapalle dates from the Satavahana period of 2nd to 1st century B.C. The stupas have limestone cladding over brick-work. The monuments are built on a terrace approached by a long flight of steps. The Chaitya Hall has an unusual circular plan and a dome shaped ceiling adorned with rock cut beams resembling wooden rafters. A horseshoe–shaped arch stands at the entrance. Sankaram Sankaram is situated 41 kms west of Visakhapatnam and 3 km north of Anakapalle. The site has numerous monolithic votive stupas, rock cut caves and other structures built around the 7th Century. The main stupa was carved out of a rock and then encased in bricks. The site has a brick built monastery. This consists of a rectangular court surrounded by small cells; in the middle is an apsidal-ended shrine. The hillside rock cut sanctuaries contain reliefs of Buddha. Another cave has images of Ganesha and Bhairava carved on the sides. Obviously the place was used for Hindu worship in subsequent periods. Nagarjunakonda and Anupu During the 3rd –4th centuries AD, Nagarjunakonda, 150 km south of Hyderabad, was the capital of the Ikshvaku rulers. The ancient site occupied an area of about 23 sq.km in a valley on the banks of Krishna river. A large number of monasteries and shrines were erected to serve the needs of different Buddhist sects. Most of the excavated remains were submerged under the enormous reservoir created by the Dam built in the nineteen sixties on the Krishna river. A few monuments were reconstructed on a hilltop, which became an island in the reservoir. At Nagarjunakonda the reconstructed stupas have circular brick or rubble walls. The walls have cladding of limestone slabs or plaster. The Simha Vihara has two Chaitya halls, one encircling a Buddha image. The Chaitya Halls and monasteries had limestone columns set in to brick or stone walls. However only the lower portions including the pavement slabs and access steps survive. Nagarjunakonda also has remains of some Hindu shrines. The island has an archaeological museum rich in sculptures mainly from the 3rd –4th century AD and also a few pieces from much later periods. Other reconstruction sites are at Anupu on the east bank of the river. These include a temple (3rd-4thcentury), monasteries (4th century) and a Stadium ( 4th century). The monastery has also a refectory, a store and a bath. The stadium has tiered galleries providing seating around a rectangular court.

Hindu Temples __________________________________________________________________________

Rock Cut Temples: Bhairavakonda, (near Nellore) In the 7th –8th Centuries AD, Kondavidu chiefs ruled over a large part of eastern Deccan. Bhairavakonda near Nellore has remains of several rock cut Hindu temples dedicated to God Shiva and other Hindu deities. The shrines have Lingas and also small images of Shiva and other gods. The column bases have seated lions and the entrances are guarded by huge figures with clubs. Monuments in Bhairavakonda are similar to the Pallava style of architecture that flourished further south in Tamilnadu. Undavalli, (near Vijayawada) Like Bhairavakonda, Undavalli is also a 7th – 8th century, Kondavidu site with rock cut Hindu temples. The largest among the temples is four storeyed in height; each successive upper storey being recessed from the lower one. Projected eaves separate the floors from each other. Parapets at upper levels are lined with large lions and other figures. There are four shrines in four interconnected mandapas. Columns and walls have images of Vishnu in Anantashayana and Vishnu on Garuda sculpted on them. Structural Temples: Early Chalukyan Alampur (near Kurnool) Hindu temples in Alampur reflect the style of Papanath at Pattadhakal, because of their Indo Aryan Shikharas. They are not large temples; the largest temple occupies a rectangle 75 feet by 50 feet. They are structurally very complete as the walls and spires are in a finished state and there is a finial in the form of a fluted melon like member (amalasila) in position on most of them. Nine Early Chalukyan temples dating from the 7th – 8th centuries are situated at Alampur on the Tungabhadra river. Although they are known collectively as the Nava Brahma, all of the shrines are dedicated to Shiva. A rectangle of walls encompasses a sanctuary surrounded by a pathway and a mandapa on columns divided into three ailes. Rising over the sanctuary is a curved shikhara (tower) derived from central and western India models. This is divided into tiers and decorated with arch like motifs; a large amalasila is placed on top. The outer walls are regularly divided into projecting niches. Alampur retained its importance as a major religious centre all through the history. The protective walls and gateways in the town and the 11th century Papanasi group of temples (which have been dismantled and re-erected about four km to the southeast) stand testimony to that. Kakatiya Temples: The early chiefs of the Kakatiya dynasty were feudatories of the Chalukyas. As independent kings, the Kakatiyas ruled the Deccan for nearly two hundred years in the 12th and 13th Century with architectural works mainly concentrated around Warangal. The Kakatiya architecture has roots in the Chalukyan style with improvisation to suit local conditions. Locally available granite and sandstone were used for the main structure. The Shikhara was built with lime and brick. Kakatiyas stepped their Shikharas instead of using curvilinear spires of Chalukyas and vertical structures of the north. The domed ceiling of the central hall was polygonal, eight or sixteen sided instead of circular. Volcanic, intricately carved and polished black basalt was used for pillars, jambs, lintels and motifs. Hanamkonda and Warangal The Thousand Pillar Temple at Hanamkonda was erected in 1163 by Kakatiya king Rudradeva. Three shrines in this temple are dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and Surya. The doorways have cutout lintels. To the south of the Mandapa rests an exquisitely polished Nandi (bull figure), the temple has several columned mandapas. The large number of granite columns of this temple has given it, its name. Warangal, once the capital of Kakatiya kings, was an important urban centre of the Deccan since the eleventh century. In 1300 AD the city is said to have had a population of nearly 100 000. The Bahmanis finally captured Warangal in 1366 and later Warangal became part of the Qutb Shahi kingdom. The old city has an unique circular plan with two concentric circles of fortifications. Most of Warangal’s standing buildings are located within the circular shaped fort. The famous entrance portals on four sides are 30 meters (100 feet) high. Of the centrally located Shiva temple of Kakatiya period, only the ruins remain. The only courtly building to survive is Kush Mahal attributed to Sitab Khan, alias Sitapati a Hindu chief, and Governor of Warangal under the Bahmanis in the early sixteenth century. This is the only royal palace in Warangal, though not belonging to the Kakatiya kings. The Kush Mahal does not resemble any of the Bahamani buildings of the Deccan. The palace is smaller in scale but strikingly similar to the sixteenth century Hindola Mahal in Mandu, capital of the Malwa kingdom near Indore in Madhya Pradesh. Kush Mahal is the only royal palace in Warangal that survives: though it does not belong to the Kakatiya kings. George Michell, UK based scholar of Indian architecture opined that being at the geometric centre of the fort and near the Shiva Temple, Kush Mahal may have been built over the site of an original Kakatiya palace, which like the Shiva temple was dismantled. Palampet and Ghanpur Ramappa Temple of Palampet, about 40 km north of Warangal and built in 1213, consists of the main shrine dedicated to Shiva with the nandi mandapa in front. It has a reddish sandstone exterior and projecting eave continuing around the building. The shikhara is multi storeyed and made of brick. The most striking features of the temple are the figure brackets springing from the shoulders of the outer pillars supporting the eaves slabs. Highly polished in black basalt, these consist of mythic beasts or elongated female figures almost life size, cut with great precision. Six kms from Palampet, Ghanpur has two 13th century partly ruined temples in Kakatiya style similar to the Ramappa Temple. Hybrid Styles: Simhachalam Situated in the outskirts of Visakhapatnam, the Varaha Narasimha temple was built by the Eastern Ganga rulers in the 13th century. The temple combines Deccan and Orissan architectural features. Located on a hill, it is one of the most popular places of Hindu pilgrimage in the region. The main shrine is dedicated to Vishnu. Reddi Kings of Kondavid: The Reddi dynasty ruled in the region around present day Vijayawada and Guntur towns for nearly a hundred years (1328-1428). The kingdom was ravaged by the Bahmanis (1458), the Vijaynagara Kings (1516), the Qutb Shahis, (1531,1537 & 1579), the Mughal Army of Aurangzeb in 1687, the French (1752), the Asafjahi Kings, and finally the British (1766 &1788). Two major hill forts, one at Kondapally 20 Km north west of Vijayawada and another at Kondavid about 30 km west of Guntur bear testimony of the fort building skill of the Reddi Kings. Surviving structures in these two massive granite forts therefore represent a mixture of Qutb Shahi and Hindu styles. At Kondapally, the old palace lies on an elevated platform situated between the two hills on either side. A wide stone stairway leads to the hilltop. The peak is fortified with towers and loop holed bastions. The upper fort is accessed through three successive gateways. This leads to Tanisha Mahal named after Abul Hasan Tana Shah, the seventh and last Qutb Shahi King. The palace has a cloistered lower floor with arched roofs. There is a large hall above. Several bathrooms have stone pipes and cisterns. The Zenana quarters are approached along a terrace and enclosed by a high wall. The buildings in Kondapally are in predominantly Qutb Shahi style with ogee arches and extensive use of granite and stuccowork. At Kondavid, ruins of three forts from successive periods can be seen. The main fort at a height of nearly 320 meters consists of massive ramparts, magazines, godowns, granaries and wells. There is a temple with carved stone pillars and a mosque within the fort. Architecture of the Vijayanagara Kings: Early Vijayanagara style had considerable influence of Chola style of Thanjavur, Tamilnadu. But the scale was much bigger and the Vijayanagara architects developed a scheme of a large temple complex with several concentric walls entered through gopuras leading to multiple shrines, tanks, stores, kitchens and other ancillary structures. The gateways had tall brick towers. The shrines had large mandapas standing on delicately carved granite columns. Penuconda The question whether the founders of Vijayanagara Empire were of Telugu or Karnataka origin is much disputed . According to one version, Harihara and Bukka, the two brothers were first in the service of Kakatiya King, Prataprudradeva. After Warangal fell in 1323, they moved away to safer places but were eventually captured by the Tughlaqs and were taken to Delhi as prisoners and were forced to become Muslims. They later gained favour of the Tughlaqs and received ministerial appointments. When the brothers found the political conditions conducive, they declared themselves free and founded the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagara. They got reconverted to Hinduism. Andhra Pradesh can therefore rightfully stake a claim to a good part of the glory of the great Vijayanagara Empire ( 1336-1664 ) which with its first capital at Hampi, extended from the present day Karnataka to Orissa including Andhra Pradesh. The golden period of the Vijayanagara dynasty was the rule of the legendary Krishnadeva Raya (1509-1530). During the reign of Vira Sadashiva Raya (1543-1568), Vijayanagara forces were defeated by a confederacy of four Sultans. Hampi was devastated and abandoned and the court and army fled southwards to Penuconda. Penuconda is a small town with a hill fort located about 70 km south of Anantapur in Andhra Pradesh. The town is full of ancient Hindu and Jain Temples, mosques, fortifications, towers and palaces. The four sides of the town are presumed to be guarded from evil spirits and diseases by the idols of Lord Hanuman, the largest of them, about eleven feet tall is placed at the Yerramanchi gate, the main entrance to the fort town. Penuconda was the residence of the Vijayanagara Rajas from as early as 1354. Tirumal Raya moved here after the disastrous battle of Talikota in 1565. Gagan Mahal, the royal palace was built in 1575. Penuconda is an interesting architectural case. The town has Hindu buildings in Islamic style and Muslim Dargahs built in Hindu or to be more precise, Lepakshi style. In the same tradition, Gagan Mahal has a basement in Hindu style but a ground floor of intricate Islamic details with later additions. Continuing the Vijayanagara traditions, the palace is similar to several structures at Hampi, with Islamic style arches, vaults and plaster decoration combined with temple like elements. The upper level is capped with an octagonal pyramidal tower. An adjoining three storeyed square tower with projecting balconies overlooks the approaches from the east. Nearby stands a small, square structure, also with a pyramidal roof. The skyline of Penuconda fort is dominated by the Rama Burj, an observation tower standing in the northwestern corner in Vijayanagara style. Next to the Gagan Mahal, are two 15th century Hindu temples dedicated to Rama and Shiva. The temples are built of granite in early Vijayanagara style with their towers topped by domical roofs. The walls have stone carvings depicting scenes from Ramayana and other epics. Penuconda also has a Jain temple; the Parshvanath Temple built in the 15th Century dedicated to the 9th century B.C, 23rd Great Teacher (Tirthankaras) of Jainism. Inside the temple stands a 11th century sculpture depicting Parshvanath in standing posture and facing a serpent. Built in the late Chalukyan style, the sculpture is of exceptional merit.Penuconda has an early 17th century mosque built in grey and black granite attributed to one Sher Ali. Lepakshi A significant artistic achievement of the Vijayanagara rulers, the Virabhadra Temple at Lepakshi, 10 Km west of Hindupur town was built 1600 AD. The temple complex is renowned for its ceiling-paintings and the intricately carved sculpture-columns. Dedicated to Shiva, consort Uma and also Vishnu, the temple complex is surrounded by two rectangular enclosure walls. Besides the Mandapas, Gopuras and subsidiary shrines it contains monolithic large figures of Nandi Bull and Nagalinga. Though the basements and the superstructure are of carved stone, the brick towers over the sanctuaries are pyramidal in shape with domed roofs. Tadpatri Situated 54 Km north east of Anantapur town, Tadpatri has two sixteenth century Vijayanagara Temples. Located on the banks of Pennar river, the Ramalingeswara Temple dedicated to Rama and Sita, has multistoreyed and pyramidal towers with hemispherical roofs. The Venkataramana Temple located inside the town has Vishnu as the principal deity and is similar to Ramalingeswara Temple in architectural style. Both the temples are extremely rich in sculpture and carvings. Srisailam The 14th –16th century Mallikarjuna temple and the 16th century Uma Mahaeswara temple at Srisailam dedicated to Shiva have Vijayanagara style Gopuras on four sides and pyramidal towers rising over the sanctuary and walls with exquisitely carved panels depicting mythological subjects. Srisailam is one of the most important Hindu places of pilgrimage. Kalahasti Kalahasti has a very large sixteenth century Shiva Temple with granite basement and walls rich in intricately carved pilasters and a tall pyramidal tower nearly 120 feet (36.5m) high. Situated on the banks of Swarnamukhi river, Kalahasti is a very important centre for Hindu pilgrimage and also famous for a popular and traditional technique of painting on cloth known as Kalamkari. Achyutdevaraya, one of the Vijayanagara Kings was crowned at Kalahasthi temple. Palaces of Chandragiri The second Vijayanagara capital Penuconda was also under constant threat from Qutb Shahi and Adil Shahi rulers. Therefore the capital was again shifted to Chandragiri (Chittoor) by 1585. Penuconda was thereafter ruled by Vijayanagara Governors. Chandragiri remained capital of the declining Vijayanagara Empire till 1646. Located 11 km north east of Tirumala Hills, Chandragiri has natural defences with a ring of hills surrounding it. It has an upper fort, reputed to date from 1000 AD situated on a 183m (600 ft) rocky hill. At the base of the hill there are defensive walls and gateways, two well preserved palaces, a tank and other civic structures. The palace of the Vijayanagara kings is an early seventeenth century specimen of south Indian architecture combining Hindu and Muslim styles . The palace is 45.7m (150 feet) long with a three storeyed façade of pointed arches and pyramidal towers. It consists of a centrally located Durbar Hall. The hall is surrounded by a two storeyed colonnade, which acts as a clerestorey, allowing light to penetrate the space. The Main palace and the ancillary structures have stucco facades and variations of Vijayanagara style. It is from the Chandragiri Palace that in 1639 the ‘Vijayanagara Empire’ granted land to Francis Day for the East India Company at Madras. Ahobilam Situated about 80-km south east of Nandyal town, Ahobilam is one of the most sacred Hindu sites of Andhra Pradesh . The temples here are all dedicated to Narasimha, the mythological lion-god who destroyed demon Hiranyakashipu. The temples owe their origin to the 14th century Reddi Kings but the present architectural form is a result of additions and improvements by the Vijayanagara kings in the 16thand 17th centuries. Both the main temples located in Lower Ahobilam and Upper Ahobilam are therefore in typical early Vijayanagara style. Tirumala Tirumala is famous for the temple dedicated to Venkateswara, an aspect of Vishnu and is among the most important Hindu places of pilgrimage in India. The site is situated among a range of seven wooded hills at a height of about 700 meters. Origins of the temple complex can be traced to the 10th century. Due to the proximity of Chandragiri, the late 16th century capital of Vijayanagara kings, the temples at Tirumala received patronage from the powerful dynasty and prospered. Though the carvings and several architectural elements reflect Vijayanagara style, the temple complex has been extensively rebuilt Tirupati Tirupati is a large town at the foot of the Tirumala hills and the gateway to Tirumala. The 14th – 17th century Govindaraja temple is in parts built in the Vijayanagara style. The temple is dedicated to Vishnu.

Qutb Shahi Style (mainly in and around Hyderabad city) __________________________________________________________________________

The first Qutb Shahi mosque of Hyderabad is the Masjid Safa at Golconda. Built in 1518 AD, this is 75 years older than the Charminar. The mosque is a well-preserved structure and is very much in use. But little known to outsiders. The benedictory verse fixed in the prayer niche of the mosque expressed a hope of the founder of the kingdom Sultan Quli Qutbul Mulk, that his descendants would be honourable. In this mosque, 25 years after its erection Sultan Quli was assassinated by Mir Mahmud Hamadani, Qiladar of Golconda at the instigation of the heir apparent Yar Quli Jamshid. Jamshid, the second king built for himself a very beautifully proportioned tomb, one of the most beautiful structures in the whole Qutb Shahi tombs complex. Qutb Shahi rule at Golconda began with the assumption of virtual independence in 1518 AD by the Bahmani Governor Sultan Quli Qutb Shah. Till then, Golconda was under the Bahmanis (1347-1518). The Bahmanis had Gulbarga as their capital till 1424 and thereafter shifted the capital to Bidar. After 1518 the Bahmani kingdom disintegrated in to five independent kingdoms: the Adil Shahi at Bijapur, Baridi at Bidar, Nizam Shahi at Ahmed nagar, Berar at Ellchipur and Qutb Shahi at Golconda. There is a fundamental difference between Islamic Architecture in northern India and in the Deccan which includes the Qutb Shahi style. Unlike other parts of India, a unique building style developed here based more on the development of overseas ideas than the evolution and adaptation of local architectural tradition to Islamic needs. The links of Deccani kingdoms with Persia, Turkey and Arabia were very close and the great fortress cities of Deccan; Bidar, Bijapur, Golconda and Gulbarga were not built around existing centres of Hindu culture. Philip Davies, in the Penguin Guide to Monuments of India commented ‘As such they tended not to use salvaged temple masonry buildings, with all the structural and artistic compromises which this entailed. A vigorous architectural style and an alien new culture were injected in to the conservative heartland of Hindu India.’ The Qutb Shahis ruled from 1518 to 1687. This approximately coincided with the reign of the great Mughals (1526-1707) that built Humayun’s Tomb (1565), Fatehpur Sikri (1571-1580) and finally the Taj Mahal (1631). During the same period the Bijapur Sultans built Gol Gumbad (1656) and the Barid Shahis built several exquisite tombs (1543-1591) at Bidar. The architectural ancestors of the Qutb Shahis were naturally the Bahmanis. Evolution of Deccani architecture amalgamated the early Tughlaq influence, the intermediate appearance of Persian forms and motifs and the lasting mark of meticulous workmanship of local craftsmen. The earliest Bahmani mosque; the Shah Bazaar Mosque at Gulbarga built around 1367 and the late Bahmani Jami Mosque at Bidar (early 16th century) provided the model for almost all mosque construction in the Deccan. Sultan Quli’s Masjid Safa, mentioned earlier and situated just north of Habshi Kamans at Golconda, is strikingly similar to the Jami Mosque at Bidar. The early Bahmani Tombs are simple square domed chambers characterised by low flattish domes, corner finials (a formal ornament at the top of a canopy, gable, pinnacle, etc) and sloping walls similar to the Tughlaq tombs. Later Bahmani architecture can be found in Bidar in the form of Tomb of Mahmud (died 1518) which has triple tiers of arched recesses and plain merlons (alternating raised portions in a battlement, also called crenellations) without any decorations. The first Qutb Shahi Tomb at Golconda, that of Sultan Quli (died 1543) is also an austere structure similar to Mahmud’s tomb in Bidar. Qutb Shahis therefore began with Bahmani moorings and proceeded to evolve an individual style that culminated in architectural marvels like the Charminar and other landmarks. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, the 5th Qutb Shahi King built Charminar and shifted his palaces from Golconda fort to the new quarter North West of the Charminar. Therefore he is known as the founder of Hyderabad though he is not the founder of the dynasty. Qutb Shahis built with massive granite walls. Granite and lime mortar are the chief ingredients of Golconda Fort, the Royal Tombs, the Charminar and the innumerable Qutb Shahi mosques. The Mortuary Bath in the Qutb Shahi Tombs complex has rugged arches in Bahmani Style. The tombs are typically square buildings with arched lower storeys supported on massive plinths, some of which have arcades. The lower storeys are surmounted by crenellated parapets with small bulbous minarets, protruding at each corner. The domes are supported over tall drums, which may be arcaded and balustraded. They are slightly bulbous in contours rising from a base of petals or trefoil merlon motifs. The granite is usually covered with stucco and with coloured tile work. Projecting cornices are encased in plaster designs as well as miniature and arcaded galleries encircling the corner minarets. The construction of the massive domes speaks for the structural expertise of the Qutb Shahi master builders and craftsmen. Locally available granite, sand and lime were used in the construction of Qutb Shahi monuments including Charminar. Lime used for the plaster seems to have been specifically ground and treated to give durable stucco. Generally shell, lime, jaggery, white of egg etc are known to enhance the binding property of lime. The Sio2 /CaO ratio in Charminar’s mortar and plaster (1.61-2.25) indicates that the engineers at that time were probably aware of the necessity of having a higher Sio2 content but were not sure of the optimum value (presently the common practice is to have 3.0) at which the maximum strength of lime cement could be obtained. Built during 1591-92, to a height of 56.7meters ( 186 feet), on a square base of 31.5meters (100 feet), Charminar is said to be a prototype of Tazia, representation of the tomb of Imam Husain. It is said that during the Mughal Governorship between Qutb Shahi and Asaf Jahi rule, lightning destroyed the South Western minaret which ‘fell to pieces’, but ‘it was forthwith repaired at a cost of Rs 60000’! Charminar was plastered in 1824 at a cost of Rs 100000. During early Asaf Jahi rule, Deccan was the scene of intense rivalry between the British East India Company and the French. Other active players in the region were the great Marathas. In 1756, French forces entered Hyderabad in order to install an Asaf Jahi Ruler of their choice. In the end, it was the choice of the British that prevailed. Meanwhile in 1756, French General Monsieur Bussy had occupied the Charminar for a few days. In their construction technology, selection of building materials and in artistic excellence Qutb Shahi architects and engineers reached a high degree of proficiency. Eminent historian H.K. Sherwani opined that in the later Qutb Shahi period, dressed stone began to be used for facing the frontage of larger structures instead of stucco. Mecca Masjid is an example of this. The Qutb Shahis also used the facade of Mughal cusped arches in conjunction with the typical Qutb Shahi pointed ogee arch as seen at Jama Masjid, north east of Charminar and also on the facade of the mosque on the uppermost storey of Charminar. This could either be due to Mughal influence as held by Sherwani or a later imposition when most of the important Qutb Shahi mosques were restored or renovated. A detailed discussion on Qutb Shahi town planning principles is not within the scope of this article. It may however be interesting to note that Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, the fifth king and Hyderabad’s founder planned Hyderabad as an ‘open city’. It was to have no walls. The Walled City of the eighteenth century was a creation of the Mughal rulers. The Qutb Shahis already had their well-fortified Golconda Fort to fall back upon at times of need. The last Qutb Shahi king, Abul Hasan Tana Shah in fact was forced to spend the period from 1656 to 1687 in Golconda Fort and was taken prisoner from there after the Mughal conquest. After the fall of Hyderabad before the Mughals, the city walls were started by Mubariz Khan, the Mughal Governor (1724) and completed by Asaf Jah. I in 1740 to keep the Marathas away. The city was planned around two focal points: one, the Charminar and the other, a vast central garden around a fountain with the main thoroughfares following a regular geometric pattern. Jan Pieper a well-known German Town Planner and others have opined that this was an attempt to create a replica of Paradise. The grid of the two principal intersecting roads meeting at Charminar, the Pathar Ghatti- Shahali Banda road and the Laad Bazaar road, is tilted at a distinct 10 degrees angle with the north -south axes. This is perhaps due to the compulsion of placing the Charminar with its roof- top mosque in such a way that the mosque could face the exact direction of Mecca as geographically aligned with reference to Hyderabad. Most mosques of Hyderabad are oriented in this manner. Originally the intersecting roads passed under the Charminar. There old width, say of the Laad Bazar road, even today corresponds to the 11meters ( 36 feet) span of the four arches of Charminar. If Charminar is tilted in relation to the cardinal directions, then the intersecting roads passing underneath have little choice to do otherwise. Rest of the streets of Qutb Shahi Hyderabad also followed a regular grid. During the Asaf Jahi period, the quarters within the regular blocks developed with an organic and irregular system of lanes and bylanes. The road pattern inside the Golconda Fort that pre-dates Hyderabad is irregular and in parts governed by the terrain with the main streets encircling the walls of the inner fort situated on a hillock. Ruins of Golconda contain fragments of earthen pipes used for water supply. Golconda Fort is perhaps one of the least explored heritage sites of India. There are strange figures and animals worked out of stone and stucco on the walls of the outer fort facing the Naya Quila, waiting to be studied by art historians and archaeologists.

Neo Qutb Shahi (Hyderabad city) __________________________________________________________________________ Qutb Shahi style came to an abrupt halt following the Mughal conquest of 1687. The Mughal Governor ruled from Aurangabad. As earlier mentioned, the Mughals started building the city walls and that was similar to Qutb Shahi fortification in massive granite. Early Asaf Jahi rulers preferred European style as seen in Chow Mahalla (older parts 1750 AD). This was followed by buildings in late Mughal style and still later in Indo European style and the composite style in vogue during the days of City Improvement Board. Interestingly, during the later half of the 19th century, there was a revival of the Qutb Shahi style. Mosques and tombs were built with domes and arches similar to the Qutb Shahi ones. A typical example is the Afzalgunj Mosque near Nayapul. This was built in 1868 and is said to have been modelled after a Qutb Shahi Mosque. Afzalgunj Mosque has two tall minarets, a facade of three pointed ogee arches, high arcaded parapets with smaller minarets and stucco decorations: all in the Qutb Shahi design. In some other examples of this style, there are tombs where the entire upper portion, dome etc. are Qutb Shahi but the arcade at the ground floor is of cusped arches in mughal style. A very conspicuous specimen of Neo Qutb Shahi style is the Abdul Haq Diler Jung’s mother’s tomb (1883) and his own tomb (1896), near Secunderabad Boats Club. However one of the tombs has pilasters in European style in the first floor arcade and the proportions are relatively slender compared to typical Qutb Shahi tombs. This period was one of experimentation. A special feature of this style is that in none of the examples, exposed granite was used. Qutb Shahi revival apparently lasted for only half a century.

Palaces of the Nizam: Asaf Jahi Style (mainly in and around Hyderabad city) __________________________________________________________________________

The Asaf Jahis who succeeded the Qutb Shahis were prolific builders. Several palace complexes of HEH the Nizam, landmarks like the Andhra Pradesh High Court, the Osmania Arts College and the Osmania Medical College building are among their well-known contributions. Asaf Jahi rulers also experimented with European styles and attempted a synthesis of European traditions with Hindu and Islamic forms and motifs. Chow Mahalla Palace Among two intervening rulers, Salabat Jung spent a greater part of his time in Hyderabad (Salabat Jung, the officially un-crowned Nizam ruled for a short period during the power struggle between the British and the French, compounded by the interference of the Marathas). By some accounts, he is credited with the building of the first Asaf Jahi Palace in Hyderabad i.e. the Chow Mahalla palace. The Asaf Jahis deserted the former Qutb Shahi palace quarter lying north west of Charminar and decided to construct a new palace complex for themselves to the south west of Charminar. In ‘The Unpublished Diary of a French Officer of Bussy’s Army’, the Officer describes Salabat Jung’s palace with its approach from Chowk (later known as Mahboob Chowk) as follows: " the other or second building is the mansion of the Nawab, which is made up of three blocks of residences....... We here see a reservoir, the garden and the reservoir lead up to a large courtyard.... in the midst of this court is the first apartment, which is a large carpeted hall, one storeyed; its ceiling is supported by a number of small wooden pillars .....the second block of houses is also a great hall of which the ceiling is supported by a number of wooden pillars, each of a single piece, it is carpeted and one-storeyed. In the centre of the hall is the Nawab’s throne between four pillars, where he receives the ambassadors.....as for the third block of houses, it lies to the left as you enter the preceding hall. Here are two houses facing each other, between which is a fruit garden with a square medium sized reservoir and a small fountain. In the house on the right is a large screen, and it is here that the Nawab dines and sleeps with his concubines. ....such is the apartment of Nawab Salabat Jung ." The above account is vague and does not clearly correspond to the buildings in Chow Mahalla as they stand now. This however confirms that Salabat Jung selected the site and created the nucleus of perhaps modest structures laid along a series of inter-linked courtyards, the old structures being later replaced by grander ones. The Chow Mahalla Palace complex in fact extends from the Lad Bazaar on the north to the Aspan Chowk road on the south. During different phases of Asaf Jahi rule, portions of Chow Mahalla were built. The durbar was held in the hall or pavilion called the Khilwat. This was built around 1780 during the reign of Nawab Nizam Ali Khan, Asaf Jah II but later extensively renovated in 1911. Khilwat has a composite architectural style with Mughal as well as Qutb Shahi arches, topped by twin octagonal pavilions on the parapet. It is an over decorated building with huge proportions with a curious Asaf Jahi Baroque. Jilu Khana facing the Lad Bazaar and Daulat Khana e Ali was built during the reign of Asaf Jah I (1724-1748). South of Khilwat one enters the next courtyard around which the main four palaces are located lending the Chow Mahalla name. It is believed that this complex was built during the reign of Nawab Afzal -ud Doula Bahadur, the Nizam or Asaf Jah V (1857-1869). The palaces are named Afzal Mahal, Mahtab Mahal, Tahniyat Mahal and Aftab Mahal. Of these, Afzal Mahal is the most imposing and a two storeyed building with a European facade of Corinthian columns and a parapet without pediment. Other three buildings are single storeyed structures with relatively modest scale and facades of Corinthian columns. All the four buildings are laid around a large courtyard garden with a marble cistern at the centre. There are later additions to the complex in late Mughal style with facades of cusped arches, made between 1912 and 1926 when the older buildings were also renovated. Chow Mahalla was used even by subsequent Nizams and state banquets were held here. Well known among those is the banquet held in honour of T.R.H the Prince and the Princes of Wales on 10th February 1906. For several decades, the sprawling Chow Mahalla Complex has been lying vacant. Purani Haveli Palace Asaf Jah II apparently lived in the Chow Mahalla complex buildings built by his predecessors, since the main palaces were built by Asaf Jah V nearly hundred years later. In 1777, between Chatta Bazaar and Dabirpura Main road, towards north east of Charminar, he started construction of the first buildings of Purani Haveli for his son, Sikandar Jah. But Sikandar Jah, on becoming the third Nizam (1803-1829) went to live in the Khilwat palace in Chow Mahalla. The buildings built by Asaf Jah II therefore came to be known as Purani Haveli. Purani Haveli regained its glory only when the sixth Nizam, Nawab Mir Mahboob Ali Khan made it his official residence. Purina Haveli Complex is U shaped with a single storeyed central building in European style flanked by two double storeyed oblong wings (nearly 1000 feet) of which the western one has the famous wooden wardrobe. Both the wings are wider towards the southern end where these are only single storeyed and have two extremely well proportioned courtyards surrounded by rooms and deep verandahs with semicircular European arches. Purani Haveli is one of the most important architectural landmarks of Hyderabad combining European facades with traditional Indian courtyards. The complex also includes two annexes attached to the northern ends of the parallel wings. Purani Haveli on the whole is under- used. A training institute runs in parts of the building beside the offices of the Muffakham Jah Trust. Nearby there is another beautiful courtyard house now used as the Princes Esin Women’s Education Centre. King Kothi Palace Of the three principal buildings of the King Kothi Complex, the main King Kothi building now housing a hospital and the Mubarak Mansion (Nazri Bagh) accommodating the offices of the Nizam’s Private Estates (Sarf E Khas) only survive. The third building, Usman Mansion was demolished in the early eighties and in its place a new hospital building is constructed by the State Government. Originally built by one Kamal Khan, the complex was acquired by the Nizam VII. Both the surviving buildings in King Kothi are in European style. Nizam VII, the last ruling Nizam (1911-1948) lived here and passed away in this building on February 24th 1967. The northern and the main road-facing gateway of Mubarak Mansion is called the Purdah Gate where always a big purdah or curtain hung. When Nizam went out of the Palace, the purdah was lifted up which showed that he was not present. The gate was guarded by Maisaram Regiment, police and Sarf E Khas Army with lances in their hands. To the east of Mubarak Mansion, stands the Ghadial Gate: the gate with a clock. King Kothi complex has various European styles incorporated in it. The canopies over windows, the intricate woodwork, the sloping tiled roofs in octagonal pyramid shapes of the Ghadial Gate complex, and the classical semicircular arches are among the characteristic features of King Kothi. As mentioned earlier, the King Kochi Complex has remained in use for offices and Hospital. Falaknuma Palace Falaknuma palace mainly served as a royal guesthouse for the Nizams. The palace was built by Nawab Vikarul Umra Bahadur, a noble from the Paigah family, who later became Prime Minister of Hyderabad (1894-1901). The main buildings were completed in 1884. Nizam VI, Nawab Mir Mahboob Ali Khan Bahadur purchased it in 1897 and later added other structures like the Coronation building. The sixth Nizam occasionally lived here and died in this building in 1911. Falaknuma palace complex is dramatically located on top of a hill about four km south of the Charminar. The main palace was designed by English architects in 1872. The central building is placed over a large terrace accessed through two levels of basements. The building is in classical style with a two storeyed deep and colonnaded verandah carrying a pediment. Though basically Palladian, the columns are thicker in proportion. The facade has Ionic columns at the ground floor and Corinthian columns at the first floor. A wide staircase leads to the ground floor. On both sides of the main central palace are two identical crescent shaped blocks with classical facade and pediments. At the rear, there is a long and imposing courtyard, nearly 600 feet long, surrounded on all sides by rooms and corridors. At the southern end, there is a round shaped hall with deep verandas faced by colonnade in Ionic style called Gol Bungla and an interesting glass roofed large verandah overlooking the vast expanse down below. Parts of the side wings are older structures incorporating Islamic features. The Coronation building and a few ancillary structures are in late Mughal or Rajasthani style. The interior of the main building has a marble entrance hall and fountain, and an Italian marble staircase supporting marble figures, lined with portraits of British Governors General. The reception room is in Louis XIV style. Elsewhere there are French tapestries, beautiful inlaid furniture from Kashmir, and Victorian artefacts. Dignitaries who stayed at Falaknuma as guests include the future King George V and Queen Mary, Prince of Wales, and Viceroy Lord Wavell. Falaknuma is one of the largest and most important palaces of India After years of neglect and non-use Falaknuma Palace is now being given a major face-lift by the Taj Group for a Heritage Hotel. Mahboob Mansion This palace, presently in disuse and poor condition, is named after Nawab Mir Mahboob Ali Khan, the VIth Nizam who used to occasionally live here though his permanent residence was the Purani Haveli described earlier. Built in the late nineteenth century, this is a very interesting and large palace in a combination of classical European and Mughal style. It has roofs somewhat similar to the eastern blocks of Mubarak Mansion (Nazri Bagh) in King Kothi.

The Paigah Palaces (Hyderabad city)

__________________________________________________________________________ 

In the hierarchy of nobles of Hyderabad, the Paigah family ranked immediately next to the ruling family of Nizams. Abul Fateh Khan Tegh Jung Bahadur, progenitor of Paigah family migrated to Hyderabad in the late 1740’s. Nizam Salabat Jung (not considered an Asaf Jah) conferred on him the order of nobility in 1756. Tegh Jung was also entrusted with the defence of the kingdom. Eventually this became the hereditary function of the Paigah nobles.

The Paigahs were also the foremost palace builders of Hyderabad. As described earlier, the Falaknuma Palace was built by Nawab Vikarul - Umra, Iqbaluddoula. This was later acquired by the Nizam VI. Vikarul Umra also built the Paigah Palace in Begumpet, presently the office of Hyderabad Urban Development Authority. Dating back to the 1880’s, this is a large two storeyed neo-classical building with a portico, semicircular arches, unfluted Corinthian columns, projected and pedimented windows and deep arcaded verandahs on all four sides.

Near Paigah Palace lies the Deorhi of Nazir Nawaz Jung, who was the grand son of Vikarul Umra. The building however was built in the 1880’s. This is a beautiful and large two storeyed palace in European style. It has wide verandas facing outwards as well as inwards overlooking a courtyard. The complex is partly converted into a club. The rest of the area is used as a residence.

Palaces of other nobles of the Paigah family; Asman Jah (Bashiruddoula) and Khursid Jah are in poor state of preservation in the old city. The most important palace of Bashiruddoula, the Bashirbagh Palace situated north of the old city has been demolished. Asman Garh, a smaller but interesting European-style palace on a hilltop in Dilsukhnagar still survives.

Palaces of Other Nobles in Hyderabad

__________________________________________________________________________

Malwala palace

Interestingly, the palaces described so far were purely European in character while some had only the ancillary buildings in late Mughal style or a combination of European and Mughal features. Malawala Palace is one of the few surviving wooden palaces of Hyderabad built in late Mughal and Rajasthani style. The ancestor of this family, Sagar Mall had accompanied the first Nizam to Hyderabad in 1724. Sagar Mall became custodian of the revenue (Mall) records of the state. This function was passed down to his descendants hereditarily. Thus the family acquired the name Malwala.

Malwala Palace is located along the road leading towards east from Charminar. The complex had three components: the double storeyed large residential quarters arranged around several smaller courtyards and vernacular overhanging wooden balconies at first floor level facing the street; the road side block with a double height semicircular gateway flanked by a pedimented side wing with Corinthian columns in European style enclosing a smaller and outer courtyard, and finally the grand inner court with a fountain in the centre surrounded by wooden pavilions on two sides and overhanging wooden balconies with intricate carvings and supported by ornate wooden brackets on the other two sides.

This inner court is accessed by another arched gateway on which at first floor a Naubat Khana is located. The southern pavilion facing the entrance has a grand facade of seven cusped Mughal arches in carved and lacquered wood approached by wide flight of stairs. This leads to a double height hall that has rooms overlooking it from the first floor. A flight of wooden steps links this first floor with the ground. These two pavilions and the courtyard were used for family gatherings and for entertaining guests during special occasions. Malwala Palace is unique in its extensive use of woodwork and as specimen of a typical Hyderabad courtyard house. This is also one of the important palaces belonging to Hyderabad’s erstwhile nobles.

Other palaces of Hyderabad

__________________________________________________________________________ 

Other important surviving palaces of Hyderabad are the Dhanraj Gir Palace (Gyan Bagh) and the Erra Manjil. Raja Dhanraj Gir belonged to a family of highly reputed nineteenth century merchants and philanthropists. Their sprawling palace complex in Pan mandi area is one of the best buildings of Hyderabad in European style and also the best preserved.

The Erra Manjil in Somajiguda was built by Nawab Fakhrul Mulk, a high-ranking noble and Vice President of the Nizam’s Executive Council. Erra Manjil is a vast complex basically in European style with ornate baroque facade, located on a hill, hence occupying a commanding position. This is presently used as a Government office.

European Architecture in Andhra Pradesh

__________________________________________________________________________

Hyderabad City

Designed by Lt. Samuel Russel, the British Residency of Hyderabad was built in 1806 and is one of the best examples of European architecture in India. Presently used as a Government college, it has a Georgian facade and a vast campus comprising of several ancillary buildings of considerable architectural and historical significance.

Some Asaf Jahi palaces of the early period, like the Chow Mahalla were built in European style. The city also has several beautiful churches built during the nineteenth century.

Secunderabad, which is part of Hyderabad originally developed around a British Cantonment, set up in 1798. During the nineteenth century Secunderabad, the Residency area around Sultanbazar-Koti, and the Gunfoundry-Abids area had a strong presence of European population. Many large bungalows and houses of the period still survive. One can also find a few Art Nouveau or Jugendstil buildings built in the early nineteenth century.

European Architecture in other places of Andhra Pradesh

Bimlipatnam (Bheemunipatanam), 24 Km north of Visakhapatnam on the eastern coast was a Dutch Settlement set up in the seventeenth century. This small town has ruins of Dutch palaces, an ancient cemetery and an old church and a town hall. Public buildings and churches in European style can be found in many other towns such as Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Vizianagaram, Machilipatnam and even Tirupati.

Architecture of Hyderabad during the CIB period

__________________________________________________________________________ 

Set up in 1912 after the devastating floods of 1908, the City Improvement Board (CIB) functioned for nearly half a decade and built new roads, cleared slums, constructed housing colonies and several public buildings particularly during the nineteen thirties. Redevelopment of localities, roads and the Musi riverfront by the CIB triggered the construction of several city landmarks like the Osmania General Hospital, the High Court and the Moazam Jahi Market. Several European architects such as Vincent J. Esch designed these buildings and attempted a synthesis of European, Islamic and Hindu architectural traditions and motifs as can be seen in the Osmania Arts College building designed by Monsieur Jasper.

Modern Architecture in Andhra Pradesh

__________________________________________________________________________

Unlike Chandigarh, Delhi and Ahmedabad, Andhra Pradesh does not have many specimens of modern architecture built by internationally known architects. However in Hyderabad, B.V.Doshi of Ahmedabad designed a residential colony for the ECIL, Mr Charles Correa designed the IDBI complex at Gacchibouli and Satish Gujral designed the CMC campus and buildings at Gacchibouli which are among the notable modern buildings of Hyderabad.Elsewhere in Andhra Pradesh some good modern buildings can be seen in Visakhapatnam.